Extended Family Tree: Adler Lives on in Modern Therapies

For Counseling Theories CSLG 6100 at UNC Charlotte, Summer 2001
Stephen Snow

One can hardly turn around today without bumping into the ghost of Alfred Adler. Among Adler's significant contributions to counseling and psychotherapy has been his influence on other systems (Watts, Pietrzak 2000). He appears, sometimes disguised in different nomenclature, in a panoply of modern and postmodern psychology theories and approaches. He surfaces in the self-help movement and in the practices of Alcoholics Anonymous, and his approaches are becoming synonymous with the emerging field of multicultural counseling. However, Adler and his contributions have been largely overlooked, and his ideas either neglected or seriously distorted (Utay & Utay 1996). This paper will explore Adler's often-unrealized presence and the influence his theory and approaches have had on other counseling models. While not an exhaustive examination of the literature, this paper will show Adler's influence on Existential, Humanistic, Reality, Cognitive, Systems, Multicultural and Solution-Focused Brief therapies, as well as his impact on the self-help movement.

One of Adler's key tenets was that power, not sex, provided the key factor in neurotic behavior. This separated him from Freud, his contemporary, and set him on a path that continues today. In developing his idea of the "inferiority complex," Adler felt much neurotic behavior stemmed from feelings of inferiority. For example, the youngest child in a family, trying to compete in a world of adults, may overcompensate at the expense of normal social behavior or, as Adler would term it, "social interest" (Hutchinson, 2000). Adler's response was to create a counseling environment that responded to the discouragement people felt by providing support and encouragement, in short, "assist in the process of restoring patterns of hope." (Watts & Pietrzak 2000). Because Adlerian psychology is so broad and flexible, parts of it have been adapted, sometimes unknowingly, into other therapeutic approaches.

Symbiosis With Humanism

Although Adler's theory often has been incorrectly described as "neo-Freudian," (Silverman & Corsini, 1986, as cited in Watts & Pietrzak, 2000), his phenomenological approach resonates in the theory of humanism, especially as developed by Carl Rogers. Watts (1996) notes that, with one small exception, Rogers hardly acknowledged his debt to Adler. In fact, Rogers actually studied with Adler from 1927 to 1928. Adler was a visiting instructor at the Institute for Child Guidance in New York City and Rogers was an intern. Shortly before he died, Rogers said he was "shocked by Dr. Adler's very direct and deceptively simple manner of immediately relating to the child and the parent. It took me some time to realize how much I had learned from him." However the similarities between the two approaches are striking.

Take, for example, Rogers' "core conditions" of empathy, unconditional positive regard and congruence. Taken together, these three concepts line up very well with Adler's "social interest." Adler, for his part, has described social interest in terms of empathy (Watts, 1996):

"By social interest or social feeling, we understand something different from that which other authors understand. When we say it is a feeling, we are certainly justified in doing so. But it is more than a feeling; it is an evaluative attitude toward life …. We have found in an English author a phrase which clearly expresses what we could contribute to an explanation: 'To see with the eyes of another, to hear with the ears of another, to feel with the heart of another."

In addition, Watts (1996) notes that "the behavioral characteristics of agape-perseverance, benevolence, trustworthiness, humility, altruism, unselfishness, optimism - are remarkably similar to both Adlerian descriptions of social interest and Rogerian descriptions of the core conditions, especially unconditional positive regard." Rogers' sense of congruence may be the least specific parallel. However, Watts (1996) again notes Adler's belief that therapists with developed social interest had self-awareness and related to clients with honesty, or, to use Rogers' word, genuineness.

At Home With Existential, Reality, Systems and Brief Therapy

The existentialists also owe a great debt to Adler. Viktor Frankl, among the giants in existential therapy, found much relevance in Adler's theory. Adler's belief that people were oriented toward accomplishment is completely congruent with the core existential concept of the importance of meaning in a person's life. In the late 1920s, Frankl was an ardent Adlerian. (Hoffman, 1995). Frankl, active in the democratic socialist movement, lectured throughout Central Europe on "The Meaning of Life," which he interpreted as being experienced by helping to build an economically just society. Watts & Pietrzak (2000) note that Adler held strong beliefs about the importance of social equity for women, contributed to the understanding of gender issues, spoke against marginalizing minority groups and predicted the rise of the Black Power and Women's Liberation movements. Clearly, Adler saw "being" as actualized through expressed "meaning" by a strongly developed social interest and, therefore, set out the psychological framework for existentialists.

William Glasser's Reality Therapy is firmly grounded in Adlerian psychology. Both theories view behavior as purposeful and goal directed, and advocate a phenomenological perspective. (Nystul, 1995). The Adlerian concept of encouragement-discouragement is similar to Glasser's view of success and failure identities, and "although there are differences in the thoughts of Adler and Glasser, there are, amazingly, no basic conflicts." (Whitehouse, 1984, as cited in Nystul, 1995). In developing a problem-solving model that integrates Adler and Glasser, Nystul (1995) notes that both approaches provide methods for enhancing motivation, with strong parallels in the language of the two. Glasser contended that clients will be motivated to change their behavior if they discover what they are doing is not working for them, while the Adlerian counselor will seek to understand an individual's frame of reference and mistaken notions or goals. Once that occurs, the behavior can be understood, faulty cognitions can be addressed to motivate movement toward goals. (Nystul, 1995).

Because of its clear articulation of family constellation issues, the pragmatic and optimistic approach Adlerian psychology takes makes it ideally suited for integration into many other treatment models, including those dealing with children and families. Glass & Myers (2001) note one example in applying individual psychology to adventure-based counseling. Adventure-based counseling includes wilderness camps and outdoor structured activities such as challenge courses. This combination of experiential learning, outdoor education and group counseling incorporates behavior, cognitive and affective elements and integrates them to promote positive change. (Glass & Myers, 2001). Adler's outlook had cognitive aspects in that he believed that people were influenced by their interpretation of facts, rather than facts themselves. He also saw all behavior as having a purpose and that people chose different behavior based on individual goals that reflected their own private logic. When this private logic produces destructive behavior patterns, Adlerians help people recognize and change their behavior, allowing them to take part in society fully (social interest), giving and receiving as an equal. Glass & Myers (2001) used low-element challenge courses (LECC) as a way to integrate Adlerian concepts into adventure-based counseling. The purpose of the LECC was to increase cohesion among the students and provide some lessons for life, which from an Adlerian perspective would translate to helping group members gain a positive sense of social interest and cooperation. After processing the exercises and shared responsibility, participants were encouraged to apply what they had learned to everyday problems in their lives. This approach finds its way into marriage and family therapy, which focuses on family systems in understanding an individual's behavior. (LaFountain & Mustaine, 1997). Although formal acknowledgement of Adler usually is lacking, these system theories have their roots in Adler's work. This is evident in the Consultation Model school counselors use. Consultation, as a problem-solving approach, encourages adults in a student's life to work together to address and improve social and academic concerns. (White & Mullis, 1998). Adler was the first person to work in consultation with clients in a public forum in front of other parents, teachers and doctors so they could learn through observation and large-group teaching. (White & Mullis, 1998). Said Adler in 1930, "No educator or teacher should believe that he is the only educator of a while. The waves of outside influence stream into the psyches of the children and mould the children directly or indirectly …" (as cited in White & Mullis, 1998).

In the systemic perspective, Goldberg & Goldberg (1996) note that "all behavior is seen as part of a sequence of ongoing, repetitive, transactional patterns taking place among family members. " (as cited in LaFountain & Mustaine, 1997). For Adler, the family is the main context for seeing individuals in a social context, so that Adlerians derive social interest from the interlocked patterns of behavior by individuals within a family. The overriding goal of structural family counseling is to "change the underlying systemic structure." (LaFountain & Mustaine, 1997). According to Carlson et. al. (1997), the general goal of Adlerian family counseling is to encourage change in family members, as well as the family as a whole, to create a more egalitarian arrangement.

Adlerians believe that most marital problems occur when one person feels either "less than" or "greater than" their spouse. When one person acts as though they deserve to dominate or call the shots, the person of lesser status inevitably resorts to either open rebellion or subtle sabotage…. Adlerian therapy helps the couple find ways to cooperate as mutually equal and dignified human beings." (Evans & Hathaway, 1993).

These techniques appear in a wide range of treatment approaches, also including self-help and support-oriented Alcoholics Anonymous and postmodern Solution-Oriented Brief Therapy. Adler has, in fact, been called "the father of self-help," a term that reflects his belief in the broad value of psychology. According to a recent biography by Edward Hoffman (1995), "Adler was a feminist thinker who believed psychology should be of, by and for the people…. He thought people could benefit from the insights of psychology without a therapist. (Hoffman, 1995) Carroll (1999) suggests that the holistic principles of Adlerian psychology are "remarkably in accord with the biopsychosocially and spiritually based philosophy and practices of AA." Adler's sense of people being discouraged rather than ill naturally flow from his core belief that society, work and love are three key life challenges people need to confront in order to successfully choose goals they want to pursue.

As a singular example, AA rejects the notion of perfectionism and favors realistic progress toward goals that include significant amounts of public and private encouragement of the individual. This parallels Adler's belief that people need to learn to have "the courage to be imperfect" (Pew & Pew, 1997, as cited in Carroll, 1999) and to think of mistakes as opportunities to learn. For Adler, knowing one is not perfect and yet also, at the same time, undeserving of condemnation because of it is a sign of psychological health. In AA, Adler's connection to the existentialists also becomes apparent through AA's stressing of spirituality as key to mental well-being. Dreikurs & Mosak (1967) noted that an important task people face is considering the meaning and purpose they give to life and deciding their belief about God's existence. In addition, Cooley (1997, as cited in LaFountain & Mustaine, 1997), wrote that "people who are alcohol dependent need to address the Adlerian spiritual task early in treatment." Solution-Focused Brief Therapy necessarily takes an eclectic, time-limited approach to treatment. Adlerian therapy is a psychoeducational, present/future-oriented, and brief or time-limited approach, note Watts & Pietrzak (2000), adding that "Adlerian therapy, albeit theoretically consistent, is both integrative and eclectic and clearly integrates cognitive and systemic perspectives (and) the Adlerian approach … solidly resonates with postmodern ones."

In addition, with the rise of multicultural awareness and sensitivity in counseling in a managed care environment, Adler's focus on prevention, growth-producing policies, promoting competence, reaching out to others and finding meaning and community in a social context certainly reverberates with SFBT. "From my vantage point," notes Corey (1991), "Adler's ideas are certainly compatible with many of the macrostrategies for future delivery of services to culturally diverse populations." (as cited in Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). Herring & Runion (1994) note that while Adler's contributions to counseling with ethnic children have received little attention by professional counselors, Adlerian theory includes many concepts that can be applied to ethnic counseling. Adler viewed people as creative, responsible individuals; he didn't try to fit children into neat categories, and criticized the use of the intelligence quotient to categorize children. Adlerian techniques, because of their great flexibility, emphasized a person's subjective view of his or her world, and supported respect for ethnic values and perceptions. (Herring & Runion, 1994).

Adler's most enduring contribution to psychology may actually not reside in his great flexibility or his intrinsic sense of equality, fairness and optimism about people and their ability to solve their problems. His most important contribution was his courage in breaking away from Freud. Freud's ideas, while not irrelevant by any means, centered so narrowly around issues of sex as a key motivator for behavior, that he missed the essence of what it means to be a person. Adler not only correctly identified the sense of personhood that people seek in attempting to resolve conflicts within their lives, he also created a model flexible enough to evolve as succeeding generations put their own spin on his theories. Adler could easily be called the first eclectic psychologist, and the most complete in his wide-ranging, person-centered, positivist approach to celebrating the human spirit. All of the therapies discussed in this paper are derivatives of Adlerian thought and practice, and there are many more not discussed here for which Adler could rightly claim parenthood. As Watts & Pietrzak (2000) note, "Adler's constructivist approach was too far ahead of its time. Thus the ideas of Adler and subsequent Adlerians were, for the most part, ignored or overlooked because they were considered unscientific or unworthy of note….Adler's ideas were marginalized because they were out of step with the dominant metaphors of his time, and, consequently, his theory was discounted, even though many of his ideas have been assimilated into subsequent theoretical positions."

If a family tree were created for psychology, the Freudian branch would show up as a single branch, while the Adlerian branch would show vigorous growth and branching, bearing fruit that continues to sprout effective new therapies up into the postmodern era. The time as come for psychology to embrace Adler as the true father of living psychology.

References

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